A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer Free Essays

string(106) " musical extravaganza drawing over 500,000 people\) might include tradition, celebration and civic pride\." Today, although still representing a small percentage of the overall promotional budget, the outlay of rumination dollars for sponsorship castles Is growing rapidly (Parker, 1991; Candler and Shank, 1989; Scott and Chard, 1992). Not only are today’s sponsorships more sophisticated (I. E. We will write a custom essay sample on A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer or any similar topic only for you Order Now , more than simply the donation of cash for event production but most firms are expecting a reasonable return on their sponsorship dollar in the form of increased sales (Octahedron and Van Kirk, 1992). While firms enter into sponsorship arrangements with a variety of goals, two of the most important are: to increase brand awareness; and to establish, strengthen, or change brand image Crowley, 1991; Marshall and Cook, 1992; Meghan, 1991; Memorable teal . , 1991). Recently, these goals have been theorized to be important in the development of customer-based brand equity, defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on the consumer’s purchase decision (Keller, 1993). In Seller’s conceptualization, brand knowledge (which drives customer-based brand equity) Is a function of both the consumer’s awareness of the brand and the Image(s) associated with that awareness. â€Å"In particular, the variability, strength, and uniqueness of the brand associations play a critical role in determining the differential response† (Keller, 1993, p. 8). Brand awareness is achieved by exposing the brand to as many potential consumers as possible (Asker, 1 991 ). Sponsorship activities present multiple opportunities for achieving awareness objectives, and much of the research to Image creation model 145 International Marketing Review, Volvo. 14 No. 3, 1997, up. 145-158. MAC university press, 0265-1335 International Marketing Review date in the sponsorship literature has focused on awareness issues such as sponsor recall (e. G. McDaniel and Kinney, 1996). Regrettably, less attention has been given to event and brand image issues. A number of questions exist regarding the effect of sponsorship promotional activities on brand and event image. For example: ; What factors contribute to an event’s image? ; Do consumers associate an event’s image with sponsoring brands? ; If there is an image association between event and sponsor, is there a theoretical explanation that can be used to understand this linkage? ; If there is an image association between event and sponsor, what factors moderate (strengthen or weaken) this relationship? How does event image influence attitude towards the brand? Although attempts at measuring the return on the sponsorship investment have been made (e. G. , total event attendance, exit polls, sales following the event, and number of media mentions), an understanding of how sponsorship â€Å"works† has yet to be developed (Octahedron and Van Kirk, 1992; Cavalry et al. , 1994; Memorable teal . , 1991; Parker, 1991). The purpose of this article is to present a model exp laining the mechanisms by which brand image may be impacted through sponsorship activities. Specifically, drawing on the theory of meaning rareness from the celebrity endorsement literature, a model is presented which suggests the factors involved in creating an event’s image and the subsequent transfer of that image to the sponsoring brand. Furthermore, several factors are identified that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image. While the focus of this article is on the conceptual development of image transfer in sponsorship, a variety of research propositions are offered to guide future empirical inquiry. A framework for the transfer of event image Model conceptualization and overview Brand image has been defined as â€Å"perceptions about brand as reflected by the brand associations held in memory’ (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller suggests that the variability, uniqueness, and strength of the associations are critical to a brand’s success. Brand associations are developed from a variety of sources including product use, informational sources (e. G. , advertising, packaging, word-of-mouth), and association with other entities. The â€Å"association with other entities† source is of particular relevance to sponsorship activity. Keller has suggested that when a brand becomes associated with an event, some of the associations linked with the event (e. . , youthful, relaxing, enjoyable, disappointing, sophisticated, elite, etc. ) may become linked in memory with the brand. This transfer of associations is consistent with research in the celebrity endorsement process. Initial research regarding celebrity endorsement focused on the credibility and attractiveness of the message source (I. E. Celebrity) to explain the persuasive nature of endorsers. That is, more credible and attractive endorsers were viewed as more persuasive. However, McCracken (1989), pointing to conflicting research results, suggested that endorsement effectiveness is better explained by the â€Å"meanings† consumers associate with the celebrity endorser and subsequently transfer to the brand. McCracken uses the term â€Å"meani ng† to describe consumers’ overall assessments of what a celebrity â€Å"represents† based on counterblasts sun as social class, gender, age, personality Ana Testily. In individual characteristics (e. . , regal, trashy, maleness, strong, caring, sexual, irreverent, wise) are integrated to define the meaning of the celebrity. Meaning which has been accumulated through their roles in â€Å"television, movies, military, athletics, ND other careers† is thought to reside in celebrities (McCracken, 1989, p. 315). According to McCracken, the meaning attributed to celebrities moves from the celebrity endorser to the product when the two are paired in an advertisement. That is, meanings associated with the celebrity become associated with the product in the mind of the consumer. To complete the meaning transfer process, consumers acquire the meaning in the product through consumption. This process is illustrated in Figure 1. 147 Figure 1 . Meaning movement in the endorsement process McCracken (1989) â€Å"meaning† in celebrities is analogous to Seller’s (1993) event associations. Following the convention set forward by Keller with reference to brand image, this article uses the term event â€Å"image† to represent the cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to events by consumers. A comparison can be drawn between celebrity endorsers and events. Just as consumers associate celebrities with certain meanings, so too are events associated with particular attributes and attitudes. It is suggested here that these associations are derived from the event’s type, event characteristics, and several individual consumer factors. This is not unlike the meaning attributed to a celebrity being formed by the various roles he or she occupies. For example, event associations attributed to the annual Chicago Blues Festival (a food and musical extravaganza drawing over 500,000 people) might include tradition, celebration and civic pride. You read "A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer" in category "Papers" Extending this concept of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorser literature, it is suggested that events act in a manner analogous to endorsers in the transfer of image to sponsoring brands. The framework presented in Figure 2 theorizes from McCracken celebrity endorsement model to suggest that International Marketing Review 14,3 148 Figure 2. A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship event image is formed from a number of external and internal factors. Through sponsorship, an event’s image, which may be relatively distinct for different consumer groups, may be transferred through association to the sponsoring product. As indicated in the figure, several factors may moderate the strength of this image transfer. This discussion leads to the offering of the first research proposition: Pl : Through sponsorship, an event’s image will become associated with the sponsoring Dragon ‘s Image. Determinants of event image An event’s image is represented by a particular market segment’s overall subjective perceptions of the activity. The proposed framework suggests three factors that may impact one’s perception of a particular event: event type, event characteristics, and individual factors. Event type . In accordance with the earlier definition, event type can be categorized into at least five areas: sports related, music related, festival/fair related, fine arts related (e. G. Ballet, art exhibit, theatre, etc. ), and professional meeting/trade show related. The type of event impacts event image in a variety of ways. First, it conjures up image associations in the mind of the consumer. That is, most individuals, through past patronage or other forms of exposure (word-of-mouth, television, etc. ) will develop some attitudes (I. E. , positive or negative predispositions towards an event) regarding particular events. These attitudes will serve to frame the image of the particular event type. Note however, that one’s attitude towards an event is only one part of an event’s image. One’s attitude towards an event represents a summary of experiences resulting in some mineral predisposition to respond to an event in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner. Thus, event attitude is an enduring evaluation (Cohen, 1990). While an event’s image will be strongly influenced by one’s attitude towards the event, event image will also be impacted by non-evaluative perceptions of an event that are formed through associations held in the consumer’s memory (Keller, 1993). In this sense, event image reflects the meaning of the event for an individual, and can be characterized using descriptive labels that represent a summation of one’s perceptions. These labels, termed image associations, would include: youthful, mature, carefree, adventurous, educational, social, traditional, exclusive, common, liberal, conservative, high class, family oriented, children oriented, cerebral, athletic, artistic, pride, political, etc. Thus, event image can be thought of as a collection of image associations. In addition to past experiences and other indirect exposures, it is likely that new experiences will shape one’s perception of event image. In fact, image perceptions formed from the most recent event experiences will likely be the most influential in shaping one’s overall event image receptions (Baggage and Warsaw, 1990). New experiences can be divided into two types: the specific activities engaged in or observed; and all interactions with other event attendees/participants and event staff. It is through these two experiences that past event images may be changed or modified and new image associations can be added. The specific activities engaged in or observed may be the same for all participants[l] (e. G. , attendees at a soccer match) or quite varied (e. G. , the individual rides and attractions selected at a local festival), depending on the type of event. Regardless of the similarity of experiences, the essential issue is that a given consumer’s specific event experiences or observations will shape their perceptions of event image. It is also argued here that the number and type of other participants will have an impact on one’s evaluation of the event’s image. For example, the number of spectators may impact one’s assessment of the success of the event. Perhaps events may be viewed as more successful when they draw more attendees. In Alton, ten under AT participants may Impact perceptions AT crowding, event availability, and wait times. Type of participant† represents the demographic and cryptographic characteristics of others attending the event. The attendees at some events represent relatively homogeneous market segments in terms of social class, family life cycle, age, gender, political affiliation, etc. For example, spectators of professional golf tournaments may be middle aged, white males, with above median incomes. In other cases, events draw heterogeneous types of participants. Just as other customers can have a substantial impact on consumer’s perceptions of service firms, so too can other participants have an impact on one’s event experiences and bequest assessment of event image (Bitter et al. , 1994). These factors, perceptions based on past experiences, event activities, and the number and type of spectator/participant, constitute one aspect that will serve to shape consumers’ overall subjective perceptions of a given event. Based on the above discussion, several research propositions are suggested: 149 International Marketing Review 14,3 150 App: Direct experience and/or indirect information (word-of-mouth, advertising, etc. ) with an event type will influence event image. Pub: The specific activities experienced or observed during an event will influence event image. PC: The number and type of other spectators/participants will influence event image. Event characteristics. Within a given event type (e. G. , music concert series, trade show, etc. ), a number of characteristics will vary from event to event. The â€Å"level† of the following five event characteristics will likely influence consumers’ perceptions of an event’s overall image: event size, professional status of participants (professional or amateur), tradition/history associated with the event, event venue, and promotional appearance. Event size can be considered along a number of dimensions, including Engel of event, level of media exposure (local, regional, national, international), number of performers (if applicable), and amount of physical space occupied. The same type of event, for example electronic industry trade shows, can vary along all of these dimensions, creating different images for the same event type. Likewise, other event characteristics such as the professional status of performers (professional versus amateur) or the venue in which the event is staged (e. . , temperature, convenience, physical condition, etc. ) will impact one’s overall assessment of the event’s image. One could theorize that, in most cases, perceptions of quality, legitimacy, and attendance desirability will be higher with long running, large, elaborately staged events, featuring professionals in attractive and convenient venues. The perceived promotional appearance of a brand’s sponsorship activities may a ppear anywhere along a spectrum from advertiser to benefactor. A perception towards the benefactor end of the spectrum may lead to increased feelings of goodwill towards the brand because it is perceived as donating funds to make the event possible (McDonald, 1 ) conversely, tanner may De a negative reaction to ten Americanization of events that have not been sponsored in the past. These events may be perceived as â€Å"selling out† to the corporate world. This has become especially true in the Arts, where some individuals feel that sponsorship (corporate or governmental) of the Arts leads to censorship Jacobson, 1993; Wood, 1996) . However, due to increasing costs, it has become even more critical for events to obtain outside sponsors in order to continue to exist. To take full advantage of the goodwill aspects, the sponsoring brand may need to educate attendees regarding the beneficial role sponsorship plays in event production. Due to its association with the event, a sponsoring brand’s promotional claims can be legitimated, which serves to increase the believability of the promotional message (McDonald, 1991). Additionally, a sponsoring firm may be perceived as making an event possible for the consumer (Chew, 1992; McDonald, 1991). The perception may be especially strong for small events which often have difficulty securing financial support. In this sense, the consumer does not view the sponsorship as a form of promotion, but rather the sponsoring brand is seen as providing a service to the attendee and a level of dowdily is generated by the firm. Again, the skepticism that can be associated with traditional advertising may be circumvented. Brands that are viewed as â€Å"benefactors† will be seen in a more favorable light. The consumer may even feel the need or desire to reciprocate by purchasing the brand. Following from the above discussion, the following research propositions are suggested: App: Event size will influence event image. Pub: Professional status of participants will influence event image. PC: Tradition/history associated with the event will influence event image. Pad: Event venue will influence event image. Pee: Promotional appearance will influence event image. Individual factors. Because of the large number of factors influencing event image and the unique manner in which participants may interpret those factors, an event may have different images for different individuals. Qualitative research has revealed each sport to have its own individual image, and sponsors will tend to benefit from image transfer accordingly’ (Parker, 1991, p. 26). Three individual factors are suggested here that may impact event image: the number of images an individual associates with an vent; the strength of the particular image; and the past history one has with a specific event. Thi s last factor differs from the â€Å"past experience† factor discussed under event type. Past history refers to the unique experiences associated with a specific event, whereas past experiences refers to encounters with a general event type. Events that consumers perceive as having multiple images will be more difficult to associate with a single identity. This will be compounded when the meanings are of a conflicting nature. Thus, an individual with many event associations may have a hafting image of the event, depending on which association is currently most salient. Related to this is that images can be very strong or relatively weak. It is likely that a single strong image will dominate over several weaker ones. This will cause an event Image to De consistent over time, out Limits ten realness Tanat multiple Image associations would confer. Finally, an individual’s personal history with a particular event may have an impact on one’s perception of an event’s image. A long history will typically lead to a more ingrained and consistent image. An individual that has attended or has been associated with an event for a substantial time period may also have nostalgic feelings that become associated with the event’s image. Events that have multiple or vague images pose problems for a firm’s sponsorship selection decision because it becomes more difficult to predict the image that may become associated with the event, and ultimately â€Å"transferred† to the product. The above discussion leads to the following research propositions: App: Individuals associating an event with a large number of images will have difficulty identifying a consistent event image. 151 International Marketing Review 14,3 152 Pub: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have consistent event images over time. PC: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have less rich event images. Pad: Individuals with long-term participation in an event will hold a consistent event image for that event. This section has identified three broad areas (event type, event characteristics, and individual factors) that influence the creation of an event’s image, although there may be some event image determinants not explicitly discussed in the previous section. It is likely that any unrepresented actors could be accommodated within the proposed areas. The next section discusses constructs that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image. Moderating variables in the model Potential moderating variables presented in the model are discussed in two sections. In the first section variables potentially impacting the strength of the image transfer from event to brand are discussed. As such, variables pertaining to the formation of strong memory associations (degree of similarity) and exposure to the sponsor’s message (level of sponsorship and event frequency) are discussed. The second section on moderating rabbles examines how one’s involvement with a product may moderate the impact of the event’s image on brand attitude. Attitude towards the event and attitude towards the brand are conceptualized and discussed as being components of event image and brand image, respectively. Although not illustrated in Figure 2, these attitude components should be considered as a part of each of the respective â€Å"image† boxes in the figure. Moderators between event image and brand image This section will discuss three moderating variables impacting the strength of the â€Å"transfer† between an event’s image and the image of a sponsoring brand. As indicated above, the basis of the relationship is the meaning transfer between these constructs and it is this process that the moderating variables are proposed to influence. The first moderating factor to be discussed in the image transfer process is the degree of similarity between the event Ana ten sponsor. A product can nave letter Atonally or Image related similarity with an event. Functional similarity occurs when a sponsoring product is actually used by participants during the event. An example of this type of similarity is Valentine’s sponsorship of automobile racing. The link is established because, apart room being a sponsor, Valentine’s motor oil products are actually used by many of the participants during the event. The second type of similarity is termed image related, and occurs when the image of the event is related to the image of the brand. An example of this type of linkage is Pepsin’s sponsorship of the 1993 Michael Jackson World Concert Tour. Here the similarity comes from the youth and excitement orientation of both the music and the product. Interestingly, some sponsors do not appear to be linked to the events they sponsor. For example, the USAFG Sugar Bowl combined a large insurance firm with a collegiate football game. It is suggested here that either functional or image based similarities forge stronger ties and help the consumer to link the event image with the brand. Thus, sponsor- event similarity (functional or image based) will enhance image transfer by more firmly anchoring the relationship in the consumer’s mind. This assertion is consistent with some celebrity endorsement literature which suggests that â€Å"MIS-matches† between endorser and brand decrease the effectiveness of the endorsement (Katie, 1987). A second factor that may moderate the image transfer from event to sponsoring brand is the level of sponsorship. Sponsorship arrangements can run the gamut from a single sponsor to hundreds of sponsors at many different levels. Multiple sponsors for a given event lessens the probability that a particular brand will be associated with the event, due to the additional stimuli each consumer must attend to and recall (Hutchinson and Alba, 1991). Often, events allowing multiple sponsors will offer different â€Å"levels† of sponsorship. By contributing different dollar amounts to the event, the sponsor can buy enhanced packages. These enhancements include better sign/banner location, more frequent media mentions, and premium kicked and hospitality packages. Exclusive sponsorship, or at least a dominant position, will increase the likelihood of meaning transfer from the event to the sponsoring brand by more firmly establishing the link between event and brand. The frequency of the event will also have an impact on the image transfer process. Events may be on either a one-time or recurring basis. Although a onetime event does not allow recurring event-sponsor associations to be developed over time, some events may be of such a unique nature that they attract a great deal of media attention (e. G. , Hands-Across-America). However, an ongoing event (annual, semi-annual, monthly, etc. Should have the benefit of more firmly establishing a link between the event and the brand due to repeated exposures (Manacling et al. , 1991). The above discussion leads to the following research propositions: App: The higher the degree of similarity (image or functional based) between event and sponsoring brand, the more effective the image transfer between e vent and brand. Pub: The more exclusive the level of sponsorship, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. PC: The more frequent the event, the more effective the image transfer between event ND brand. Image creation m Ode I 153 Moderators between event image and attitude towards the brand As discussed previously, one’s attitude towards the event will help to shape one’s image of the event. Thus, event attitude is a component of event image. Likewise, attitude towards the brand is considered under this framework as a International Marketing Review 14,3 154 component of brand image. Indeed, recent conceptualizations of brand image include an attitude component (Keller, 1993). As such, the model presented in Figure 2 suggests that event image will have an impact on attitude towards the brand. However, might there be situations in which this relationship is moderated by another factor? Advertising research with endorsers has demonstrated that product involvement level (defined as the level of personal relevance a product has to a consumer, resulting from the perceived level of risk associated with the product’s consumption or non-consumption) can impact the attitude formation process (Petty et al. , 1983). â€Å"Specifically, we have shown that when an advertisement concerned a product of low involvement, the celebrity status of the product endorsers was a very potent determinant of attitudes about the product. When the advertisement concerned a product of high involvement, however, the celebrity status of the product endorsers had no effect on attitudes, but the cogency of the information about the product contained in the ad was a powerful determinant of product evaluations† (Petty et al. , 1983, p. 143). Following from this research, level of product involvement should moderate the relationship between event image and attitude towards the brand, such that event image will have a larger impact on brand attitude for a low involvement product. The influence of event image on brand attitude can be understood further by considering the type of persuasion process likely to occur. Petty and Capacious (1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests that persuasion can occur along two routes. The central route to persuasion occurs when an individual bases product evaluation on â€Å"diligent consideration of information that a person feels is central to the true merits of an issue or product† (Petty et al. , 1983, p. 144). The second route to attitude change, peripheral, suggests that change may also occur through the association of the object with positive or negative cues (e. G. , expert source, pleasant surroundings, forceful presentation, etc. ). This conceptualization of the peripheral persuasion route is consistent with Seller’s (1993) position of links in memory being established between an event and the sponsor. One characteristic of sponsorship that distinguishes it from some other promotional methods is its indirect nature (McDonald, 1991). That is, the sponsorship is, at best, a secondary concern (behind the actual event) for the participant. Furthermore, other than the brand’s name and/or logo, seldom is any type of commercial message associated with the firm’s products. Thus, sponsorship would appear to operate along Petty and Capacious peripheral persuasion route due to this indirect nature, and lack AT available cognizant International. Emplace tests AT ten ELM model suggest Tanat ten central route to persuasion is more effective for high involvement goods, while the peripheral route has a higher impact on low involvement goods (Petty et al. , 1983). Theorizing from the ELM, one could conclude that when the sponsoring brand is a low involvement product, event image will be a potent force in determining brand attitude. Conversely, the promotional benefit, in terms of attitude change, for high involvement products appears to be small. Product involvement is only likely to be applicable when the sponsorship is focused at the brand level, as opposed to the sponsorship focus being at the firm level. The discussion in this section gives rise to the following research propositions: App: Brand attitudes of low involvement goods will be strongly influenced by event image. Pub: Brand attitudes of high involvement goods will be weakly influenced by event image. PC: Persuasion processes from event sponsorship take place on the peripheral route. Implications for practice and research Implications for practice Several implications for marketing practice can be drawn from the proposed model. First, firms should consider more than simply the number of potential customers their sponsorship signage and other identifiers will reach. It is important to consider the image of the event, as this image may become associated with the brand. An event’s image can be assessed through a variety of methods. However, given its potentially ambiguous and transitory nature, qualitative methods in the form of depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques, are likely to provide the best view of how consumers perceive a given event. Event organizers might take it on themselves to conduct such studies and use the results to recruit potential sponsors. In the course of such research, event organizers may find that the image of their event is not what they thought. Furthermore, it would be wise for event image studies to take place on a regular basis to assess changes in event image over time. This would allow event organizers to take corrective action in a timely manner. The proposed model suggests a variety of event image determinants that could be manipulated to position a given event in a different light. In terms of the sponsoring rand, the model suggests several aspects of sponsorship that should be considered when deciding on potential event affiliations. One aspect that should be considered, in light of image transfer benefits, is the degree of similarity between the event and the brand. Brand awareness benefits are likely to accrue regardless of similarity levels, but it has been argued here that image associations will be more likely when some link exists, either image or functional, in the consumer’s mind. Firms looking to add sponsorship activities to their promotional mix should also consider the level of pensioners and frequency of the event. Although most firms will look at these aspects with an eye towards the total dollar commitment, it may also be wise to consider the meaning transfer implications. As discussed previously, exclusive sponsorships in events occurring on a frequent basis will likely maximize the image transfer potential of the sponsorship purchase. Finally, firms should consider whether image transfer benefits will actually have any influence on consumers’ attitudes towards their brand and ultimately their purchase intention. The model suggests that, in terms of impacting a How to cite A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer, Papers

Determinants of Employee Motivation †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Determinants of Employee Motivation. Answer: Introduction: I worked in KFC before, where my job designation was customer service officer. The organization has been quite reputed but it was quite tough for me as the management never cared about performance appreciation. My immediate supervisor, the territory manager was extremely dependant on how well the managers would behave with him and ignore the performance. I personally believe in hard work but my supervisor did not even care about the data and number. I also found that regular performance review was not done accurately by the manager and therefore, my appreciation was always ignored. This has been quite similar to some officers as well. With the course of time, I came to know how should the queries of clients be managed and the way staffs should serve customers. I used to take sessions and ensure demonstrations to my fellow staffs so that they could give their best and make customers satisfied. This even resulted in better customer response and very less client complaints. However, my appreciation was always been ignored by the supervisor. In the corporate sector, performance evaluation, employee satisfaction, role evaluation criteria and customer satisfaction indicates organizational sustainability. However, if the employees are not given attention, the motivation is affected. Same was my problem. I was never the part of managers attention and therefore gradually I kept on losing interest. Some of the most important problems that I faced were lack of managers support, lack of performance evaluation criteria, poor job role and objective communication and managers incapability to understand employee need. Being the customer service officer of the store, I needed the support of manager regarding store infrastructure development so that client could have been more satisfied. However, there was no proper indication from my manager. At the time of crisis such as delay in supply and delivery, poor employee commitment and electrical issues, I hardly got any support from my manager. On the other hand, while highlighting about the performance evaluation criteria, I was never shared the top employee contribution and success factors of other officers. I felt this as a biased attitude of the manager. There was no transparency and performance evaluation was mostly done based on personal likability and intimacy. This impacted my motivation as even though I worked hard by I was never appreciated or supported. While considering the role and objective, I must highlight that prior to working in KFC, I had very less knowledge of management and therefore my supervisor would have guided me to achieve organizational objectives, however I was never communicated the same. Finally, I never found the managers ability to understand an employees need and requirement. Fringe benefits have become quite common these days and therefore managers must understand the real cause of employee dissatisfaction. Overall I must say that motivation was my main issue, which resulted in poor performance in my last service days. I must highlight that in future, the territory manager must appreciate employee performance based on set criteria and biased attitude must be avoided so that the best can be achieved from an employee. The workplace at KFC was not quite satisfactory for me. I always used to feel lack of motivation during my job at KFC. One of prime reasons for my de-motivation was lack of proper support from my senior managers. I did not get adequate support from my senior managers for handling complex situation in regards to complex situation. Such practice of the senior managers made me quite frustrated and de-motivated at the workplace. The lack of my de-motivation can best be explained through the Expectancy Theory of Motivation. As per this theory, the behaviour of the employees results from conscious choices among the alternatives, whose main purpose is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The theory explored that the individual performance of the employees is dependent on their skills, knowledge, personality, abilities and experience. This theory has explained the job motivation of the employees through three variables like expectancy, instrumentality and valence. According to Mikkelsen et al. (2017), expectancy is dependent on the belief that increased efforts will lead to increased job performance. However, the motivation for such increased job performance is dependent on rights resources and skills available for doing the job. Rahman et al. (2013) opined that right resources and skills increases the confidence level and motivation level of the employees towards enhancing their effort level for increased job performance. While considering my motivation level at KFC, I was new to the job and I needed some training for upgrading my skills level at the field of customer service department. However, I never got adequate and effective training from the organization towards upgrading my skill level. Therefore, lack of skills actually reduced my motivation towards enhancing my performance level. On the other hand, Lau, Chong and Ketvi Roopnarain (2014) opined that motivation level of the employees is highly dependent on necessary support from the s upervisors towards doing complex job. Moreover, kind support from the supervisors minimizes the complexity level of the job done by the employees. In this way, the reduced complexity level actually increases the motivation level of the employees. However, I never got proper and adequate support from my supervisors for handling complex situation at customer service department. Therefore, I faced quite difficulties in handling the critical problems of the customers. In this way, the increased complexity level of the job actually decreased my motivation level at the organization. Trpanier et al. (2015) pointed out than Instrumentality is the belief that better performance leads to valued outcome for the employees. It is the degree in which first level outcome leads to second level outcome. However, in this case, performance and motivation of the employees depends on some variables. As per Porter et al. (2016), the employees are motivated to enhance their job performance, when there is clear relationship between job performance and job outcome. Moreover, the rules and criteria for the job reward should be transparent to the employees. However, in KFC, there was no clear relationship between the job performance and reward system. Therefore, I did not feel any kind of motivation for enhancing my job motivation. On the other hand, Dobre and Ovidiu-Iliuta (2013) opined that employees are highly motivated in their workplace, when they can have enough trust on the mangers taking organizational decision or set criteria for reward system. However, in KFC, I never have had any clear relationship with the managers setting performance appraisal criteria. Therefore, I had lack of trust on them and never had trust on the performance appraisal criteria. In this way, lack of transparency in the performance appraisal process made me de-motivated in the organization. According to Gupta, Nina and Jason (2014) valence defines the importance, which the employees place upon the expected outcome. As per this theory, adequate level of effort will lead to required performance level. On the other hand, it also defines the probability that successful performance will lead to certain outcome. However, in this case, the managers of the organizations should identify the individual motivational factors of the employees. Moreover, the reward system should be based on individual motivational needs and demands. The employees are motivated to work harder, when their individual needs and demands are met in their organization. However, the managers of KFC were incapable of understanding the individual needs and demand of the employees. Therefore, they never understood my motivational factors. Therefore, they were incapable of providing me adequate motivational factors for increasing my job performance. Therefore, such practice of the managers made me de-motivated i n the organization. While considering Justice Theory of Motivation, it can be said that the employees are actually motivated through the perceived fairness of the authoritys decision making. Olafsen et al. (2015) pointed out that trust and justice impact both the motivation level and behaviours of the employees. Different dimension of justice theory defines different aspects of employee motivation. According to Facer et al. (2014), distributive justice defines the fairness of decision making outcome of the organization. Moreover, it judges the fairness with which the employees are rewarded for their contribution level in the organizational success. As per equity norms, the employees are rewarded as per the individual achievements. Therefore, the employees become satisfied through fulfilling their individual needs and demands. On the other hand, in equality norms, organizations provide rewards equally (Kaur and Avneet 2013). Moreover, every employee gets the same reward. Furthermore, as per need norms, t he employees are rewarded as per what they need. While considering the workplace at KFC, I saw that the organization rewards the employees as per equity norms. Moreover, there is lack of individual performance evaluation. Therefore, I never got appreciation for my individual high level of performance. It was quite de-motivating for me that I never got individual praise for my enhanced performance. Achim et al. (2013) pointed out that procedural justice defines the perceived fairness of decision making process. It assesses the degree to which the employers follow appropriate process towards making decisions for employees. As per this justice, the employees are motivated in their organization, when they are allowed to voice opinions in organizational decision making process. Fernet et al. (2015) stated that procedural justice avoids bias for ensuring neutral decision making in organizations. It enhances the trust level of the employees on the employers. In this way, perception of procedural justice is quite important for ensuring employee motivation and employee relation in any organization. While I was in KFC, I observed that the employers of the organization did not follow transparent criteria for performance appraisal. Moreover, the performance appraisal process was full of biasness, which actually undermined the actual performances of the talented employees. In this way, I w as also never got any perfect evaluation of my performance. Therefore, I was quite de-motivated and frustrated in the organization. According to Hauser and Laurentiu (2014), interpersonal justice defines the perceived fair of interpersonal relationship, which the employees receive from their employers and upper management. The employees are motivated at the workplace, when they are highly valued in their workplace. Therefore, the managers of any organization should their employees in respectful and dignified manners. The higher valued and respect will be provided to the employees, the higher their motivation level will enhance. On the other hand, Sekhar et al. (2016) opined that the employees are motivated at their workplace, when the managers use proper language and behave politely with them. Perception of interpersonal justice can have long lasting effect on the satisfaction and motivation level of the employees. It also impact on the organizational commitment of the employees. While considering the KFC, I never got any supportive behaviour from the managers in my workplace. The managers never treat the employe es with dignity, which was highly de-motivating in the organization. As per Bro et al. (2017), informational justice defines the perceived fairness of communication received by the employees from the managers. Moreover, the employees are motivated to work for their organization in loyal manner, when the managers openly and transparently communicate with them. As per justification rule, the employees should explain the decision making process and its outcome clearly and openly to the employees. Timely communication of such decision making process and its outcome to the employees will enhance their involvement level and commitment level for working hard towards implementing that organizational decision. On the other hand, Zafar et al. (2014) opined that the managers should also communicate with the employees honestly and in respectful manner. Moreover, the managers should provide clear and concise justification to the employee for any organizational decision. It will enhance the value and worth of the employees, which in turn enhance the motivation leve l of the employees. However, when I was in KFC, I realized that the managers of the organization were incapable of communicating with the employee transparently. The managers never thought it worthy to share any information with the employees. Therefore, I felt like undervalued at my workplace, which made me highly de-motivated. Reference List Achim, Ioan Moise, Larisa Dragolea, and George Balan. "The importance of employee motivation to increase organizational performance."Annales universitatis apulensis: Series oeconomica15, no. 2 (2013): 685. Bro, Louise Ladegaard, Lotte Bgh Andersen, and Anne Bllingtoft. "Low-hanging fruit: Leadership, perceived prosocial impact, and employee motivation."International Journal of Public Administration40, no. 9 (2017): 717-729. Dobre, Ovidiu-Iliuta. "Employee motivation and organizational performance."Review of Applied Socio-Economic Research5, no. 1 (2013): 53-60. Facer Jr, David C., Fred Galloway, Noriyuki Inoue, and Drea Zigarmi. "Creation and initial validation of the Motivation Beliefs Inventory: Measuring leaders beliefs about employee motivation using four motivation theories."Journal of Business Administration Research3, no. 1 (2014): 1. Fernet, Claude, Sarah-Genevive Trpanier, Stphanie Austin, Marylne Gagn, and Jacques Forest. "Transformational leadership and optimal functioning at work: On the mediating role of employees' perceived job characteristics and motivation."Work Stress29, no. 1 (2015): 11-31. Gupta, Nina, and Jason D. Shaw. "Employee compensation: The neglected area of HRM research."Human Resource Management Review24, no. 1 (2014): 1-4. Hauser, Laurentiu. "Work motivation in organizational behavior."Economics, Management and Financial Markets9, no. 4 (2014): 239. Kaur, Avneet. "Maslows need hierarchy theory: Applications and criticisms."Global Journal of Management and Business Studies3, no. 10 (2013): 1061-1064. Lau, Chong M. and Ketvi Roopnarain. "The Effects of Nonfinancial and Financial Measures on Employee Motivation to Participate in Target Setting."The British Accounting Review46, no. 3 (09, 2014): 228. Mikkelsen, Maria Falk, Christian Btcher Jacobsen, and Lotte Bgh Andersen. "Managing Employee Motivation: Exploring the Connections between Managers' Enforcement Actions, Employee Perceptions, and Employee Intrinsic Motivation."International Public Management Journal20, no. 2 (Apr, 2017): 183-205. Olafsen, Anja H., Hallgeir Halvari, Jacques Forest, and Edward L. Deci. "Show them the money? The role of pay, managerial need support, and justice in a self?determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation."Scandinavian journal of psychology56, no. 4 (2015): 447-457. Porter, Tracy H., Kelly Diane Riesenmy, and Dail Fields. "Work environment and employee motivation to lead: Moderating effects of personal characteristics."American Journal of Business31, no. 2 (2016): 66-84. Rahman, Mahfuzur, Dilip Kumar Mondol, and Ayub Ali. "Nexus of Employee Motivation with Hrm and Workplace Behaviour: An Assessment of the Dominant Factors."Management Research and Practice5, no. 4 (12, 2013): 49-57. Sekhar, Chandra, Manoj Patwardhan, and Rohit Kumar Singh. "Prioritising the dimensions of employee motivation using analytic hierarchy process."International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets8, no. 1 (2016): 49-66. Trpanier, Sarah-Genevive, Jacques Forest, Claude Fernet, and Stphanie Austin. "On the Psychological and Motivational Processes Linking Job Characteristics to Employee Functioning: Insights from Self-Determination Theory."Work and Stress29, no. 3 (2015): 286. Zafar, Nida, Sana Ishaq, Shaista Shoukat, and Muhammad Rizwan. "Determinants of Employee Motivation and its impact on Knowledge Transfer and Job Satisfaction."International Journal of Human Resource Studies4, no. 3 (2014): 50.

Edgar Degas Essays (142 words) - Antisemitism In France, Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas Edgar Degas was born on July 19, 1834 in Paris and died on September 26, 1917. Degas was part of the Impressionism period. Degas was the son of a wealthy banker, and his aristocratic background instilled into his art a haughty, yet sensitive quality of detachment. In the early 1840's, the female ballet dancer became his favorite scene. He sketched from live models in his studio. Alot of the ballet dancers in his paintings where usually either on the stage, entering the stage, or resting and getting ready to perform. His paintings were mostly from an oblique angle of vision. After Degas eyesight slowly failed and he went blind he turned thereafter to sculptures, and modeling figures and horses out of wax. These sculptures remained in disrepair in his studio, and were only cast in bronze, after his death. Arts Essays

Future professional of tourism Essays

Future professional of tourism Essays Future professional of tourism Essay Future professional of tourism Essay Introduction New touristry is an of import topic for future professional of touristry. To work in this sector we have to be cognizant of new signifier, new inclination and new finishs. Travel Sellerss have to cognize supply and demand in this field. Our file is a glance of some new ways of travel and new finishs. We need to maintain watching on this new signifier of touristry because it is really competitory sector. That s why we have chosen to depict two new finishs and two new signifier of touristry. In one portion we explain couchsurfing that is a new signifier of touristry based on people exchanges. It is about a manner of life with values and aspirations. Une phrase Sur la partie de reb. : In a 2nd portion, we show two new finishs. First Bulgaria, its figure of visitants has increased by 4000000 in 8 old ages. This state with a seashore on Black sea is more and more visited particularly by Europeans. Phrase sur partie de Reb. Tourism evolves and new signifiers are created Couch surfboarding CouchSurfing s definition Couchsurfing is a new manner of going based on sharing. An organisation based on Internet ( www.couchsurfing.com ) manages the connexions between people. CouchSurfing is an international non-profit web that connects travellers with locals in over 230 states and districts around the universe. A couch or a sleeping room is offered to a visitant by a local for his stay. Since 2004, members have been utilizing this system to come together for cultural exchange, friendly relationship, and larning experiences. Today, over a million people who might otherwise neer meet are able to portion cordial reception and cultural apprehension. Our mission as an organisation is to make inspiring experiences: cross-cultural brushs that are fun, piquant, and lighting. These experiences take many signifiers. CouchSurfing s initial focal point was on hosting and surfboarding ( remaining with a local as a invitee in their place ) . Alongside these nucleus experiences, we now besides facilitate a turning array of activities and events. [ 1 ] CouchSurfing members portion cordial reception with one another. These exchanges are a uniquely rich signifier of cultural interaction. Hosts have the chance to run into people from all over the universe without go forthing place. Surfers, or travellers, are able to take part in the local life of the topographic points they visit. The CouchSurfing community continues to spread out its skylines. Members are ever happening more ways to link and larn about each other. Every twenty-four hours, people across the universe portion java, bivouacing trips, meetings, linguistic communication exchanges, treatments and all kinds of other experiences. Who and how tallies CouchSurfing? Casey Fenton launched the site on Jan 1, 2003 with co-founders: Dan Hoffer, Sebastien LeTuan, and Leonardo Bassani de Silveira. Casey continues to assist CouchSurfing as Executive Director of the organisation. The CouchSurfing organisation has no physical location. Alternatively, it exists in the coactions of diverse people from around the universe. The strategic way of the Couchsurfing organisation is composed by a Board of Director and a Strategy Team. Each member of these two groups brings different specialised accomplishments. Members of scheme squad: Casey Fenton, co-founder and Executive Director ; Mattthew Brauer, General Manager ; Jim Stone, Chief Operations Officer ; Weston Hankins, Chief Technological Officer ; Cameron Mills, Project Portfolio Manager. There besides some full-time employees and contractors. They have a assortment of functions from edifice and keeping the web site to forming fundss. Finally, some portion clip voluntaries help them to pull off the organisation. They are Couchsurfing members and they greet new members, report website bugs and answer member inquiries. CouchSurfing is a non-profit organisation, funded wholly by the contributions of members. Harmonizing to the web site, every month, 1000s of CouchSurfers choose to back up the community by acquiring verified, an individuality cheque that includes a contribution. Other members choose to do independent or extra contributions. Contributions help to pay for the costs of running the web site, like waiter hosting, storage, database care, mapping package, and many other costs [ 2 ] . Each positive experience between members costs 24? USD in CouchSurfing operating costs. The end of CouchSurfing has neer been about money, and utilizing the site is free to all members. CouchSurfing s non-profit position lawfully means that all resources must be spent straight on accomplishing the mission instead than making net income for private involvements. Few statistics 1775916 Couchserfers are going sharing places in the universes. There are 236 states represented and 70637 metropoliss for 318 linguistic communications spoken. The 10 states most visited are United States with 395657 visitants that represent 22,3 % of couchsurfers, Germany with 168807 visitants ( 9,5 % ) , France with 150939 visitants ( 8,5 % ) , United Kingdom 85587 visitants ( 4,8 % ) , Canada 85544 visitants ( 4,8 % ) , Australia 50821 visitants ( 2,9 % ) , Italy 50652 visitants ( 2,9 % ) , Spain 48858 visitants ( 2,8 % ) , Brazil 48503 visitants ( 2,7 % ) and Netherland 35661 visitants ( 2 % ) . We note that about all continent are represented in the top-ten, except Asia but China merely come in 12th place. Sing the most visited metropoliss Paris is on first place, so London and Berlin comes on 3rd place. The mean age of surfboarders is 28 and 85 % of surfboarders have between 18 and 35. Our sentiment Couchsurfing is a meaningful new manner of going. It creates connexions between civilizations and can enrich lives of everybody. It is more than a manner of going it is a manner of populating with many values like exchange without net income. We think that couchsurfing is a door to see new point of position and new civilization by going or welcoming. It is besides a tool to go more particularly for immature people. Indeed, even if it could be less comfy than hotel room, it is free. Travel aid to construct head and this manner of going license to go more, further and better. Partie de Reb New finish appears Bulgaria Bulgaria is a little state in south-eastern Europe. It have frontiers with Romania, Serbia, Macedonia, Greece and Turkey. This state owns seashores on Black sea. The clime and the alleviation license to develop a big figure of touristic merchandises. In 2000 the figure of visitants were 2100000, it addition and there were 6000000 tourers in 2008. Bulgaria s assets The natural landscape is one of the most of import assets. First, mountains and high extremum are attractive for ski touristry. Most of the 44 ski resorts are located in western state around Sofia, the capital metropolis. The most celebrated are: Aleko ski centre on Vitosha mountain at 22 kilometer of Sofia s metropolis centre with 29km of ski tallies, Borovets ski resort on Rila mountains that is a high category resort with luxury hotels, Bansko in Pirin mountain, that s one of the new ski resort in Bulgaria with 56 kilometers of ski tallies and a great off piste skiing, Pamporovo ski resort in the bosom of Rodopa Mountain is the southernmost resort in Europe. Then, we can happen the Black Sea Coast celebrated for its mulct sanded beaches, and perfect temperatures of H2O and air. The northern and the southern seashore are different. On the north tourers can happen clean and unagitated sea surrounded beaches with all right grain aureate littorals. The most celebrated and the most frequented sea side resort are Golden Sand, Albena, Roussalka, Riviera, Slanchev Den ( Sunny Day ) , St.Konstantin and Elena. On the South, picturesque bays and steep stones coexist with broad beaches and sand dune. The seashore provides fantastic nature and modern buildings on vacation small towns like Elenite, Sunny beach, Nessebur, Sopozol Rural touristry is another signifier nowadays in Bulgaria but less important. An unconventional signifier of touristry Health touristry is a great portion of touristry in Bulgaria. With over 600 mineral springs with temperature between 10 A ; deg ; C and 120 A ; deg ; C, Bulgaria is a thermic finish. Pavel Banya, Hisar, Velingrad, Narechen, Vurshets, Kyustendil and Momin Prohod, near Kostenets are the most celebrated of the wellness resort. They treat different diseases like bronchial asthma, perturbations of locomotors system, cardiovascular diseases, neurological upsets Another Health or medical touristry exists in many signifiers. Peoples travel in Bulgaria for medical, dental or surgery attention, particularly from United States and developed state where medical intervention are more and more expensive. Health Tourism is a combination of health and health care coupled with leisure and relaxation. Diet Center: Some tourers travel to lose weight and the most celebrated clinic is located in the sea side resort of St-Konstantin and Elena. A stay in the clinic last between 10 and 20 yearss and cost between 500 and 2000 Euros including providing in hotel, a medical audience, medical tests and a diet plan for each patient. Fictile surgery: It attracts tourers because of the low monetary value and the quality of services. In the center of 90 s a batch of clinics have opened and a high competition appear. The clinics managers had to put in high engineering and high qualified staff. As illustration a chest augmentation cost on mean 6000 Euros in France, England or Germany and merely 2500 Euros in Bulgaria. Tooth attention: The monetary values are cheaper than in Western Europe because they are alining on Bulgarian criterion of life. We can happen a batch of good clinics in large metropoliss like Sofia, Burgas, Varna and Plovdiv. Some circuit operator offer medical trip to their clients, they organize the whole stay. Global medical travel in USA and BGmedical travel in Bulgaria are specialized on medical travel. Our sentiment Harmonizing to us, it could be interesting to go abroad for surgery or medical attention. Indeed, in many Hesperian states a batch of people are underinsured or uninsured. It means that many people have to pay for their medical attention. Harmonizing to a Harvard survey, in USA half of personal bankruptcies are related to medical disbursals. We think that it s sometimes the lone solution to bring around decay. Peoples have to be careful. First of all, they must look into the process and comparison with their outlooks, inquire about follow-up attention needed, clip required for recovery, physical therapy etc Then, they have to choose the infirmary by sing its accreditation, awards and acknowledgments, installation and equipments and statistics like success rates. Finally, it s indispensable to heck the enfranchisements, preparation and reputation of the sawbones. www.couchsurfing.com Attached papers N A ; deg ; 1: Couchsurfing International, Inc. Income and Expense statement 2008 These statistics are generated on March, 31th 2010 at 5:37 am.

William Shakespeare's Influence on his Period Research Paper

William Shakespeare's Influence on his Period - Research Paper Example Queen Elizabeth had strong foreign policies and tactical diplomacy, and this encouraged migration of from the two power states France and Spain. About the same period of Shakespeare’s career, religious reformations were taking place, and England was in the middle of the reformations as Queen Elizabeth reign gave freedom of religion between the Catholic and the Protestants. The Queen’s ambiguity on the issue of religion gave Shakespeare a good environment for his play. Shakespeare’s religion remains uncertain but some people believe he was Catholic, as were his parents (Huxley). However, Shakespeare brought up he daughter as a Protestant. Those who say he was Catholic base their arguments on his works saying that the scripts depict Catholic beliefs. Characters in his plays show their devotion to the saints. This is true, but we should remember that a playwright’s work does not necessarily represent his or her beliefs. The society in the Elizabethan times be lieved in a universal order of things, or the Great Chain of Being. All the things in the universe had their rightful place, from the angel to the plants and elements. The human race was above the animals and the plants, but the human soul and God were higher up the hierarchy. The plays by Shakespeare incorporated these beliefs (Hylton). Characters in the play follow this hierarchy, and they are punished if they do not align with the order. The serious relationships in his play follow this order of being, and commonly carry the plot of the play. An instance is in the play A Midsummer’s Night Dream where Titania is under a love spell. She is destined to fall in love with the creatures that she sets her eyes on first, which turns out to be Nick bottom, a weaver. This relationship highlights the violation of the order of being. At the end of the play, the mistakes are rectified and the Queen and king of the Fairies reunite. The other couple also reunites and they live happily ev er after. All the serious relationship that Shakespeare creates complies with the Great Chain of Being (Ackroyd 321). Hence, Shakespeare seems to be advocating to the hierarchy in the society. The English Renaissance period had interests in Greek and Latin classics. Some of his plays have classical characters and settings, like Venus and Adonis, Rape of Lucrece, and Julius Caesar. Some of the critics have analyzed the use of classical setting as effects of school study of works from Ovid, Plutarch, and Livy (AbsoluteShakespeare). Nevertheless, Shakespeare also used the tragic hero, a persona described by Socrates in classical literature. This is notable in the plays King Lear, and Macbeth. Still in the plays Macbeth and King Lear, Shakespeare reflects the issue of independent in women. Lady Macbeth mock and manipulates his husbands, in contrast to what The Courtier had stipulated. The Courtier was a handbook for the society in the Renaissance era, and stipulated that a woman’ s duty was to please a man. In King Lear, the daughters of the king influence their husbands and are not subservient to their father. The illustration of independent women in his play might have had an influence from the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, but might as well be reflecting Shakespeare’s idea of gender equality (McEvoy 230). Female characters in plays by Shakespeare violate the regulations observed by the society and succeed in their own ways. In conclusion, Shakespeare’s works import settings from outside the Elizabethan era. An analysis of his works reflects that

Appendix c polynomials Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Appendix c polynomials - Assignment Example A demand equation (sometimes called a demand curve) shows how much money people would pay for a product depending on how much of that product is available on the open market. Often, the demand equation is found empirically (through experiment, or market research). a. Suppose a market research company finds that at a price of p = $20, they would sell x = 42 tiles each month. If they lower the price to p = $10, then more people would purchase the tile, and they can expect to sell x = 52 tiles in a month’s time. Find the equation of the line for the demand equation. Write your answer in the form p = mx + b. Hint: Write an equation using two points in the form (x,p). A company’s revenue is the amount of money that comes in from sales, before business costs are subtracted. For a single product, you can find the revenue by multiplying the quantity of the product sold, x, by the demand equation, p. The costs of doing business for a company can be found by adding fixed costs, such as rent, insurance, and wages, and variable costs, which are the costs to purchase the product you are selling. The portion of the company’s fixed costs allotted to this product is $300, and the supplier’s cost for a set of tile is $6 each. Let x represent the number of tile sets. 4. A customer wants to make a teepee in his backyard for his children. He plans to use lengths of PVC plumbing pipe for the supports on the teepee, and he wants the teepee to be 12 feet across and 8 feet tall (see figure). How long should the pieces of PVC plumbing pipe

Preparations Prior to Surgery

Preparations Prior to Surgery Table 6. Common adverse reactions during administration of local anaesthetics and their management 34 Box 2: Useful guidelines while administering local anesthesia 33 Box 3: Local anaesthesia in special situations: 30,31,32 Intradermal test dose is done to check for hypersensitivity to local anaesthesia. 0.5 to 1.0mL of test solution undiluted and containing no epinephrine is injected subcutaneously. The test is negative if no reaction occurs during the 30 minutes following the injection. However, regular use of test dose remains controversial as allergy to LA has been found to be exceptionally low (0.7%). (43) Many cases of reported allergy to LA have been attributed to sensitivity to preservatives used in the solution, such as sodium metabisulfite, rather than an allergy to the anaesthetic agent itself. (33) In some dermatologic procedures, often patients are averse to use of local injections for anaesthesia while use of topical anaesthesia may not be sufficient to alleviate their discomfort.. In these patients, vibration can be used to reduce the pain of injections. It may even be used as a substitute for anaesthesia by pharmacological agents in certain dermatological procedures like botulinum toxin injection, laser therapy, cautery of facial warts, incision and drainage of abcesses, etc. Their action is defined by the gate control theory of pain. The A -ÃŽ ² nerve fibers which transmit mechanoreceptor signals like touch, vibration, stimulate the inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord which in turn reduce the amount of pain signal l transmitted by A-ÃŽ ´ and C fibers from thes kin. Thus, counter stimulation, akin to stroking or pinching the skin, can alleviate pain sensation. (44) Cold temperature in the form of ice packs or ethyl chloride sprays has also been used for these purposes (cryo analgesia) The accountability of a dermatosurgeon towards his patient who requires surgery, not only lies in performing the procedure well but, actually begins from collecting all the medical information about him, counselling him and chalking out a plan that has his best interest in mind.(45) It is prerogative to work up the patient completely before he is taken up for surgery to avoid any adverse events. The workup should include a complete history and clinical examination, relevant investigations, counseling, and documentation. 46 A detailed history of co-morbidities and concomitant medication is taken. Concurrent conditions like diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, infectious diseases should be inquired upon. History regarding bleeding tendencies should also be taken. Wound healing is delayed in diabetes due to associated vasculopathy, decrease in the peripheral blood supply and increased risk of infections, hence the blood sugar levels should be monitored and brought under control before surgery. Also, these patient should be given a broad spectrum antibiotic prophylactically. 47,48 For patients with cardiovascular disease, a sublingual nitroglycerin is kept handy in case of a possible precipitation of angina. Adrenaline maybe avoided in cases of hypertension or peripheral vascular disease.49, 50 Electrosurgical procedures are avoided in patients with pacemakers.51 In pregnancy, local anaesthesia is used without adrenaline to avoid chances of uterine artery spasm. Safer antibiotics are prescribed and salicylates and NASIDS are avoided as they can interfere with the growth of the foetus. 39 A detailed drug history is imperative as certain drugs meddle with the haemostatic, inflammatory and wound healing processes. Hence, these drugs need to be stopped for a certain period, after the advice of the physician. 52History of allergy to any drugs, ingested or applied, allergy to adhesive tapes, history of keloid formation, scarring tendencies should be asked in detail. Box 4 gives the important drugs to be taken into consideration while planning a surgery Box 4: Important drug history that need to be asked for prior to a dermatosurgery Local examination of the site to be operated should be done to check the condition of the overlying skin, and to rule out any infection. The dermatosurgeon should have a thorough knowledge of the underlying vital structures so as to avoid any trauma while performing the procedure. Thorough examination also provides signs of keloidal tendency, for e.g in pre existing scars. If the lesion to be operated upon is suspected to be premalignant or malignant, then it is prudent to perform a biopsy first to confirm the findings on histopathology and then decide the next line of treatment. To prevent post –operative infections check for damaged ,infected skin, diabetes, debilitation, hypogammaglobulinaemia, severe malnutrition, long –term antibiotic therapy, corticosteroids, immunocompromised states, emotional stress, poor hygiene, etc. Counselling is an important constituent of the management of any dermatosurgical procedure. The problems and needs of the patient are assessed, and all the options are put forward for him to decide. Patients need to have a thorough knowledge of the procedure, the complications, the follow-up, post-operative care, outcome of the surgery, must be given to the patient. All queries about the procedures duly addressed. Expected results should be explained. Any unrealistic expectations need to be put to rest then and there. Patients with unrealistic expectations should be counselled against the procedure Baseline investigations that should be done before a dermatosurgical procedure are listed in box 5. It is, however, not necessary to do the whole list of investigation prior to a minor dermatosurgical procedure. The investigations that need to be carried out should be based on the results of the clinical examination. Box 5: Investigations to be carried out prior to a dermatosurgical procedure. Complete documentation of the case is a very important part of preoperative preparation. All the relevant clinical notes, photographs should be kept as record for medicolegal reasons. A written informed consent is of paramount importance. Drugs that are prescribed before a major dermatosurgery are mentioned in box 6. However, this is again not mandatory and is based on the patient profile, nature of the surgery and surgeon’s experience Box 6: Preoperative drugs prior to a dermatosurgery Dermatosurgeon must undertake strict safety measures in order to prevent hazardous infections. As mentioned earlier hand hygiene plays a major role in preventing iatrogenic infections. Right technique of hand washing reduces contamination and prevents the transfer of infection from one man to another. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a protective gear that comprises of mask, gloves, gowns, goggles and shoes. A high quality PPE is the only barricade between the surgeon and the infectious material. 23. All the instruments required for the surgery should be kept ready in the instruments trolley before the surgery. The surgical trolley should also have surgical drapes, adequate amount of gauze pads, cotton swabs and surgical disinfectants in place. The order of keeping the instruments on the trolley should be predetermined and kept uniform for a particular surgery so as to maintain a smooth flow of operation. Also, the emergency tray should always be ready in order to deal with any critical situation. The area to be operated upon has to be cleaned and shaved if required. Disinfection of the surgical area is done by using disinfectants like povidone iodine and methylated spirit. The cleaning of the area should always be started from the centre extending into the periphery in order to ensure minimum possible risk of contamination of the site of operation. Sterile drapes must then be used to isolate the surgical area. Excision means cutting out a tissue, an organ or a tumour. The ellipse (fusiform excision) is the mainstay and workhorse of cutaneous excisional surgery and reconstructive surgery. Proper planning of the incision should be done before the surgery is started. This results in a least noticeable and well healed scar. A well planned incision line should run parallel to the favourable lines of closure i.e. the relaxed skin tension lines (RSTL) or the lines of minimal skin tension (natural skin creases or wrinkles). [Illustration 31.4] These lines can be made obvious by pinching the skin in all direction. They can also be judged by asking the patient to smile or grimace.57,58 The incision line so planned not only makes the scar inconspicuous but it heals faster and has a higher tensile strength. Lines of maximal extensibility are typically at right angles to the RSTL. These lines are important when performing a flap grafting from an adjacent area. Incisions can also be taken along the wrinkle lines, skin folds. Another option is to make a circular incision and wait for some time to allow it to turn into an oval shape after undermining the edges. Before final closure the oval shape can be converted into an ellipse. Always respect the cosmetic units of the face. The cosmetic units of the face are chin , perioral region, cheek, periorbital region, nose, forehead, glabella, and temple. Scars restricted to single cosmetic unit hide well, than the scar crossing multiple units.58 [Illustration 31.5] Nature of the lesion removed is also an important factor. For benign lesions the surrounding normal skin excised is minimal, on the other hand for malignant lesion two factors are very important, complete excision of the tumour and to include sufficient surrounding normal looking tissue in the excision to prevent recurrences. ( 59,60) The shape of the lesion also plays important role in deciding the excision line. For oval shaped lesion the long axis of the incision line must run parallel the long axis of the lesion. This will shorten the length of the scar.[61]. When taking incisions near lips or eyes, functional considerations are very important to prevent lip retraction and ectropion respectively.